The Invention of the Atomic Bomb

During World War II, American physicists and engineers conducted a race against Nazi Germany to become the first to exploit the newly understood process of nuclear fission for military applications. Their secret endeavor, which lasted from 1942 to 1945, was known as the Manhattan Project. The effort led to the invention of atomic bombs, including the two that were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing or injuring over 200,000 people. These attacks forced Japan to surrender and brought an end to World War II, but they also marked a crucial turning point in the early Atomic Age, raising enduring questions about the implications of nuclear warfare. The Project The Manhattan Project was named for the Manhattan, New York, home of Columbia University, one of the initial sites of atomic study in the United States.  While the research took place at several secret sites across the U.S., much of it, including the first atomic tests, occurred near Los Alamos, New Mexico. For the project, the U.S. military teamed with the best minds of the scientific community. Military operations were headed by Brig. Gen. Leslie R. Groves, and physicist  J. Robert Oppenheimer  served as the scientific director, overseeing the project from concept to reality. The Manhattan Project cost the U.S. over $2 billion in just four years. German Competition In 1938, German scientists had discovered fission, which occurs when the nucleus of an atom breaks into two equal parts. This reaction releases neutrons that break up more atoms, causing a chain reaction. Since significant energy is released in only millionths of a second, it was thought that fission could cause an explosive chain reaction of considerable force inside a uranium bomb. Beginning in the late 1930s, a number of scientists, many escaping fascist regimes in Europe, immigrated to the U.S., bringing with them news of this discovery. In 1939, physicist Leo Szilard and other American and recently immigrated scientists tried to warn the U.S. government about this new danger but did not get a response. So Szilard contacted Albert Einstein, one of the best-known scientists of the day. Einstein, a devoted pacifist, was at first reluctant to contact the government. He knew that he would be asking them to work toward creating a weapon that could potentially kill millions of people. Einstein was eventually swayed by concerns that Nazi Germany would develop the weapon first. U.S. Government Gets Involved On August 2, 1939, Einstein wrote a now-famous letter to  President Franklin D. Roosevelt, outlining the potential uses of an atomic bomb and ways to help support American scientists in their research. In response, Roosevelt created the Advisory Committee on Uranium the following October. Based on recommendations of the committee, the government outlaid $6,000 to buy graphite and uranium oxide for research. Scientists believed that graphite might be able to slow a chain reaction, keeping the bombs energy somewhat in check. The project was underway, but progress was slow until one fateful event brought the reality of war to American shores. Development of the Bomb On December 7, 1941, the  Japanese military bombed Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. In response, the U.S. declared war on Japan the next day and officially entered World War II. With the country at war and the realization that the United States was three years behind Nazi Germany, Roosevelt was ready to seriously support U.S. efforts to create an atomic bomb. Costly experiments began at the University of Chicago, the University of California Berkeley, and Columbia. Reactors, devices designed to initiate and control nuclear  chain reactions, were built in Hanford, Washington, and Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Oak Ridge, known as The Secret City, was also the site of a massive uranium enrichment laboratory and plant to make the nuclear fuel. Researchers worked simultaneously at all the sites to devise ways to produce the fuel. Physical chemist Harold Urey and his Columbia colleagues built an extraction system based on gaseous diffusion. At Berkeley, the inventor of the cyclotron, Ernest Lawrence, used his knowledge and skills to devise a process for magnetically separating the fuel:  uranium-235 and plutonium-239 isotopes. Research kicked into high gear in 1942. On December 2, at the University of Chicago,  Enrico Fermi  created the first successful chain reaction in which atoms were split in a controlled environment, renewing hopes that an atomic bomb was possible. Site Consolidation Another priority for the Manhattan Project soon became clear: It was becoming too dangerous and difficult to develop nuclear weapons at these scattered universities and towns. Scientists needed an isolated laboratory away from the populace. In 1942, Oppenheimer suggested the remote area of Los Alamos, New Mexico. Groves approved the site and construction began at the end of that year. Oppenheimer became the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory, which would be known as â€Å"Project Y. Scientists continued to work diligently, but it took until 1945 to produce the first nuclear bomb. Trinity Test When Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, Vice President  Harry S. Truman  became the 33rd president of the United States. Until then, Truman had not been told of the Manhattan Project, but he was quickly briefed on the atomic bomb development. That summer, a test bomb code-named The Gadget was taken to a location in the New Mexico desert known as Jornada del Muerto, Spanish for Journey of the Dead Man. Oppenheimer code-named the test â€Å"Trinity,† a reference to a poem by John Donne. Everyone was anxious: Nothing of this magnitude had been tested before. No one knew what to expect. While some scientists feared a dud, others feared the end of the world. At 5:30 a.m. on July 16, 1945, scientists, Army personnel, and technicians donned special goggles to watch the beginning of the Atomic Age. The bomb was dropped. There was a forceful flash, a wave of heat, a stupendous shock wave, and a mushroom cloud extending 40,000 feet into the atmosphere. The tower from which the bomb was dropped disintegrated, and thousands of yards of surrounding desert sand was turned into a brilliant jade green radioactive glass. The bomb was a success. Reactions The bright light from the Trinity test stood out in the minds of everyone within hundreds of miles of the site that morning. Residents in faraway neighborhoods said the sun rose twice that day. A blind girl 120 miles from the site said she saw the flash. The men who created the bomb were astonished. Physicist Isidor Rabi expressed worry that mankind had become a threat to upset the equilibrium of nature. The test brought to Oppenheimers mind a line from the Bhagavad Gita: Now I am become death, the destroyer of worlds. Physicist Ken Bainbridge, the test director, told Oppenheimer, Now were all sons of bitches. The unease among many witnesses led some to sign petitions arguing that this terrible thing they had created could not be let loose in the world. Their protests were ignored. 2 A-Bombs End World War II Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945, two months before the Trinity test. Japan refused to surrender, despite threats from Truman that terror would fall from the sky. The war had lasted six years and involved most of the globe, resulting in the deaths of 61 million people and the displacement of countless others. The last thing the U.S. wanted was a ground war with Japan, so the decision was made to drop an atomic bomb. On August 6, 1945, a bomb named â€Å"Little Boy† for its relatively small size was  dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, by the Enola Gay. Robert Lewis, co-pilot of the B-29 bomber, wrote in his journal moments later, My God, what have we done? traumlichtfabrik / Getty Images The target of Little Boy was the Aioi Bridge, which spanned the Ota River. At 8:15 that morning the bomb was dropped, and by 8:16 over 66,000 people near ground zero were dead. Some 69,000 more were injured, most burned or suffering from radiation sickness, from which many would later die. This single atomic bomb produced absolute devastation. It left a total vaporization zone of one-half mile in diameter. The total destruction area extended to one mile, while the impact of a severe blast was felt for two miles. Anything flammable within two and a half miles was burned, and blazing infernos were seen up to three miles away. On August 9, after Japan still refused to surrender, a second bomb was dropped, a plutonium bomb named â€Å"Fat Man† after its round shape. The bombs target was the city of Nagasaki, Japan. Over 39,000 people were killed and 25,000 injured. Japan surrendered on August 14, 1945, bringing an end to World War II. Aftermath The deadly impact of the atomic bomb was immediate, but the effects would last for decades. The fallout caused radioactive particles to rain on Japanese who had survived the blast, and more lives were lost to radiation poisoning. Survivors of the bombs passed radiation on to their descendants. The most prominent example was an alarmingly high rate of leukemia among their children. The bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki revealed the true destructive power of these weapons. Though countries throughout the world have continued to develop nuclear weapons, there have also been movements to promote nuclear disarmament, and anti-nuclear treaties have been signed by major world powers. Source Manhattan Project. Encyclopaedia Britannica.

The Scarlet Letter and a Tale of Two Cities a Comparison...

The Scarlet Letter and A Tale of Two Cities: A Comparison The ninth commandment tells man not to give false witness.(Exodus 20:16) Nathaniel Hawthorn and Charles Dickens in their novels The Scarlet Letter and A Tale of Two Cities, respectively, both use punishment for deception as a recurring theme. Although they do so to different degrees and in dissimilar manners, both authors agree that deception is a sin that requires punishment. In The Scarlet Letter, the heroine, Hester Prynne conceived a child out of wedlock. Despite the pleas and demands of the clerical community, she did not reveal the identity of the father. The Puritanical community in which she lived in demanded her to give up her conspirator or bear the consequences of†¦show more content†¦Chillingworth*s deception allows him to become consumed with hatred and the desire to inflict his revenge on the one who stole his wife*s heart. Because he had secretly lived his life in hate, he too began to show his rotten inner self on the outside. Never having revealed his true identity to everyone, he died without solace and alone. Although Charles Dickens is not so severe in the castigation of his characters, he too makes t he crime of deception punishable even by death. In A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Darnay is an example of one who escapes punishment for his offense. Charles Darnay was his first line of deception. Darnay used this pseudonym in order to hide his roots in the French aristocracy. He was truly an Evr*monde. This fact continuously haunted him later when he met and fell in love with Lucy Manette. This was due to her roots which lied in her father, Dr. Manette. Dr. Manette was imprisoned unjustly by an Evr*monde and saw their abuses of the peasant class. He thusly accused all Evr*mondes of being monsters. Later, he suspected that Charles was an Evr*monde, but did not tell anyone because of his daughter*s relationship with Charles. This became a problem later when Charles needed to go to France after the start of the Revolution. Because he had always been careful to hide his identity, he assumed no one knew his true identity so he left for France despite the danger the Revolution was for him. When he arrived, he wasShow MoreRelatedHeritage Alyssa Henry James and Nathaniel Hawthorne Comparison and Contrast English III Honors 51000 Words   |  4 PagesHeritage Alyssa Henry James and Nathaniel Hawthorne Comparison and Contrast English III Honors 5 May 2014 A. Biography: Nathaniel Hawthorne Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in Salem, Massachusetts on July 4th, 1804. He grew up with his relatives, the Mannings, and in the presence of women when we was little. 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Radiology Leadership free essay sample

Leadership Article – MHS 600 Student Name: Mr. W. Daryle Heath Title: Radiology Leadership during a Disaster Event (attach copy of article/link to article) Author(s): Wayne T. Stockburger, FAHRA,JD,MBA,RT(R), Randy J. Hill, BGS, RT(R), CRA, and Peter C. McCormack, MHSA, RT(R), CRA Source/Date of Publication: Radiology Management: The Journal of AHRA: The Association for Medical Imaging Management. Summary Statement (1-2 sentences): This article evaluated the role leadership played in the efficient handling of patients through the radiology department following the mass casualty event that resulted from the shootings at Fort Hood Texas. The article not only discusses the role of the leader during the event, but also the observations and lessons learned following the event and the core management of training, and coping mechanisms. Findings in Article (one paragraph): This article does an outstanding job of describing the role of leadership in crisis situations and the skills needed to support the staff after the incident. We will write a custom essay sample on Radiology Leadership or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Radiology leadership is not only involved in managing the imaging needs of the trauma victims, but also in coordinating the clerical staff to ensure patient identification is obtained. The needs of the patients not associated with the event are also the responsibility of the radiology leadership. The author explains how important the visibility of management is to the staff, not only in the terms of supervision, but to also show support of the individuals that are taking care of the trauma victims in a professional manner. The article mentions several times that the responsibility of leadership is not just to direct, but to lead by example, this builds confidence in the staff by showing that leadership is willing to be there for them and support them as they perform their job duties. This article emphasizes the role of the servant leaders and describes the rules of management that incorporate coaching, skill assessment, managing staff, equipment, and resources. Finally, the article discusses the effects a traumatic event like this can have on the staff. Insuring that the emotional needs of the staff members after the traumatic event are taking care of and the proper resources are available for them to work through their emotional reactions. Finally, the after event evaluation determined that additional, more realistic, training was needed to better prepare the staff for these types of events. Assessment (one paragraph): During my career I have had the opportunity to both work disaster events as a staff level CT technologist and as an administrator. The disaster event I worked as a staff level CT technologist involved a train derailment with multiple high acuity trauma patients. During this event I learned a great deal from my radiology administrator about how not to handle a disaster event from a leadership standpoint. My administrator did not support the staff in any of the ways described within this article. His involvement consists of walking around from area to area drinking a cup of coffee insuring that each area was busy. As a radiology administrator I have worked several disaster events and participated in more than half a dozen multi-facility disaster preparedness drills. This article could serve as a radiology administrators guide line to leadership during crisis situations. Thankfully, these type of events do not occur routinely, but without articles like this one to provide leaders with a framework for action, administrators must learn these lessons during these events. This article was extremely informational and I am going to send an electronic copy of this article to my leadership team to ensure they have this information since were managing in the only level I trauma center in the state. This type of information is invaluable and will serve them well.

The Traditional and Modern Myths

Table of Contents Introduction Discussion The Biblical Myth Myth as a Metaphor Cultural Identity Conclusion Works Cited Introduction The concept of mythology has preoccupied human life for many decades. Myths may refer to sacred narratives or stories that try to explain how human beings and other world phenomenon came into being as seen in their present form or state.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Traditional and Modern Myths specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Although many scholars of mythology have used this terminology in many different ways, the fundamental element of myths is that they all tend to resemble stories with traditional origins. The analysis of both traditional and modern mythology shows that the main myths are characterized by gods, fictional heroes and supernatural beings or powers all shaping the human mind. Myths have served to shape human kind through establishing models of behavior. Through storytelling, individuals develop tendencies of retrogressing into the mythical past, thus drawing closer to the divine truths. This paper seeks to analyze the traditional and modern myths with a view to demonstrated similarities as well as differences. In the next phase of the discussion, the paper will enumerate the symbolic imperativeness of myths, and their influence to my perceptions about the world. Discussion A private and unrecognized dream exists as a myth within the absence of an effective mythology. The Biblical conceptualizations of the origin of man provide an excellent form of a myth in the antiquity while the relatively new myth of the Superman offers the best illustration of a myth in the contemporary society. The representations of the origin of man from a religious standpoint offer me a unique opportunity to understand how humanity and its related facets came to be. The Biblical story of the origin of man is perhaps the most upheld belief appealing to the u niversal conceptualization of humankind and its origin. Although religious dogmas and beliefs vary in a number of ways, there is a consensus about the origin and existence of humanity. The Superman myth portrayed by the comical superhero appeals to me because while as a kid, I believed in its existence and, in my dreams, wished to meet him. The Biblical Myth According to the Bible, God created man after he had created the heavens and the earth. The book of Genesis takes us through the process that took God to create human beings and the world in general. We are later taken into the Garden of Eden where we are told that God placed Adam and Eve the supposed first human beings.Advertising Looking for essay on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the book of Genesis, we are told of the man who has to discover his origin and the origin of some fundamental elements of suffering and happiness as portrayed by the sinfu l nature of man and the potential redemption through salvation (New International Bible, Gen.2.1-2) Like every other myth that has passed down through generations, the myth surrounding the origin of humankind in the Bible caries with it many inconsistencies. The order of creation in the Bible is broken and unexplained and uses unnatural means to achieve its goals. We are told, â€Å"Let there be light† ‘and there was light.† The symbolic element of creating Adam and Eve as contrasted to declaring their being serves to demonstrated the innate significance of our existence as unique objects within the mythical realms. Therefore, through these representations, we come to appreciate the intrinsic importance of man in the universe. This draws from the elements of his creation as the last creature in order to watch over the rest of God’s creation. The tales of the Bible try to explain common phenomenon, which remain unexplained in the contemporary world. Accordin g to Bible, the painfulness of child bearing is a punishment from God for defying his order not to eat from the fruit tree, which was at the centre of the Garden. One can conclude that this myth tries to explain why child bearing is so painful for women. However, in my view, it might seem unreasonable to justify the pains experienced by women due to sins committed by their ancestors. To explain the conflict that exists between snakes and man, the Bible attributes this to God’s curse for man to toil in search for food. Man has never stopped seeking the explanations of metaphysical aspects such as death, beginning of life and many others. Humanity has always dreamt and remained committed of coming up with an answer through mythology and scientific discoveries and theory. Renowned scientists like Charles Darwin have conducted numerous researches to explain and dispute the Bible’s theory of the origin of man. For instance, Charles Darwin concluded that man exists because o f evolution process through change over a long period. Although this elementary theory may provide an insight into the question of origin, it may fail to offer best explanations surrounding the metaphysical world. In trying to lend explanations to the origin of man, the most famous myths of the ancient Greek, myths of Oedipus, Odyssey, Zeus and many others may perhaps provide a substantial amount of light into the very question of existence. It is undisputed that myths form a very important part of our religions from Europe, Africa and all over the world.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Traditional and Modern Myths specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Myths inform many aspects of our life, for example, many company names originate from Greek myths; very interesting though is the effect and influence that myths have on religions all over the world, for example, the Yoruba of Nigeria believe that their God origina ted from a reed. Still in Africa, the Kikuyu, a tribe in Kenya, believed that their God came from mount Kirinyaga, which was his dwelling place. Explanations about the mythological formulations vary in approach and thought, thus serve to explain the conflicting nature of myths held by various traditions. The Superman Myth. The comic character of Superman has come up as a strong mythological figure especially in the urban areas; it is common to hear kids saying, â€Å"That car is as fast as Superman.† to convince a seven year old kid that Superman does not exist may be a challenging task. It is attributed to numerous representation of the Superman through comic books and movies and in real life. Siegel and Shuster created the first mythical characteristics of the Superman via images and symbols of rough and aggressive person renown for terrorizing criminals and gangsters especially in the 1920s. No doubt exists in the fact that a similarity exist between the Bible, comic book hero, superman, and other myths. Myth as a Metaphor In most cases myths provide perfect metaphors for applicable in real life situations. For example, the mythical Garden of Eden acts as a representation of aspects of life. Although this contradicts the Biblical essence, critics have commented that the Garden of Eden represents sexuality in human beings where the human body is represented as holy just like the Garden of Eden. However, Adam and his wife go against this order and eat the fruit meaning that they slept together. Today, the story in the Bible provides a metaphorical account of human life the story of Cain and Abel’s sibling rivalry symbolizes the conflict that exists among humans, between racism to tribalism, the rich and the poor and many other differences that exist nowadays. (Genesis, 4.1-10).Advertising Looking for essay on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On its part, the mythical hero superman represents a conflict between the law-abiding citizens and the criminals in the society or a war between the right and wrong. Cultural Identity Although held in separate ways, my choice of my myths conforms to the universal conception of most cultures around the world in a number of respects. American culture is the one that is technologically advanced as more and more people tend to believe in science, a good example are many Hollywood movies which have been created predicting the end of this world due to a calamity arising out of a scientific experiment or the future based on scientific discovery. A new religion based on a science fiction, and science on the rise. In my view, this religion bases its roots in the recent technological and scientific discoveries as evidenced by the abundant literature. The American society is a highly religious society where freedom of religion freely thrives. It is for this reason that many religions have thei r home in America. However, the Christianity has the highest following and for this reason, most Americans identify themselves with the theoretical stories in the Bible set at the Garden of Eden. Conclusion This analysis has adopted the comparative mythology in which two different myths have been compared on a number of aspects. The analysis of the concept o mythology in both traditional and modern perspectives reveals the attachment between humanity and the world. The link that manages to connect the world phenomena that remain unchallenged is filled by the formulations of myths. The concept of myth has evolved since pre-historical and Biblical times and that these elements have penetrated the modern society. Studies have shown that the tendencies of traditions to get back to their traditional form of thinking have been facilitated through the creation of myth. Different traditions have held that myths are significant in shaping human behavior through drawing near to the divine nat ure of the ancient moments. As indicated by Campbell in his book the â€Å"Heroes Journey,† these myths follow the same pattern and form, thus form a platform for behavior change. Similarly, in the comic hero’s myths, superman lives in a perfect world in Krypton where he soon discovers that there are other Kryptonians living on the planet, when he comes to rescue them they are defeated and he is forced to remain on the earth where he experiences struggles but at the end, he triumphs. The symbolic elements of myths remain instrumental in illustrating the meaning of some traditional and modern beliefs in order to inform their users. In demonstrating the essence of myths, the Superman serves as the critical example of how mythical components transform the mind and behavior through belief. Using this example, I have come to learn that characters and personality of most people are controlled by acceptance to subscribe to some particular myths. Although a strong relationship exists between the traditional and modern conceptualizations of myths, these two groups of myths have vast differences and perhaps opposing features of each other. For instance, the 21st century mythical representations attempt to reject the 19th century mythical theories and science. In this process of varying views, the modern mythology has developed a tendency to observe the traditional facets as obsolete and inconsequential to the development of the world’s ideologies. However, some studies document that different myths work in almost similar ways in order to achieve specific though different cultural and traditional goals. They argue that traditions are the regenerate functional subsets of the entire package of myths guiding the development of that given society. Myths act to give meaning to life through transformations in modes of thinking toward the world into which our deities connect with the human beings. This element enables us to understand that the existence of things such as sufferings happen for a higher cause and reason. Based on this significant element, the Biblical myth of the origin abd existence of man has enabled me to develop a general feeling that we are unique beings intended for better things in the world. This follows the punishments aspects of the Garden of Eden where our ancestors suffered because of their wickedness. In addition, besides acting to inform our understanding, the two myths have offered themselves as lessons from which we model our behavior through taking the Superman and God as role models in our social and spiritual lives respectively. For instance, the Biblical story of the origin of man is perhaps the most upheld belief appealing to the universal conceptualization of humankind and its origin. Although religious dogmas and beliefs vary in a number of ways, there is a consensus about the origin and existence of humanity. The Superman myth portrayed by the comical superhero appeals to me because while as a ki d, I believed in its existence and, in my dreams, wished to meet him. On the other hand, myths have throughout history served to justify the cultural activities through the authoritative nature of mythical elements and characters. Man has never stopped seeking the explanations of metaphysical aspects such as death, beginning of life and many others. Humanity has always dreamt and remained committed of coming up with an answer through mythology and scientific discoveries and theory. Through these aspects, myths attempt to establish events, customs, religious facets, laws, social and political structure, crafts and many recurring elements in the daily human life. Myths represent the consensus of ideologies and cultural identity of varied traditions. There has been a general notion that some myths are outdated while others were current and able to address the phenomenal events happening in the world today. However, according to the evaluation of myths through a comparative study, analy ses show that myths share some universal elements Works Cited Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton: Princeton University Press,1949. Print. Cousineau, Phil. The Hero’s Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work.  Ed. Stuart L. Brown, New York: Harper and Row, 1990. Print. Foley, Kevin D. African Oral Narrative Traditions: Teaching Oral Traditions. New York: Modern Language Association, 1998. Print. New International Bible Version. London: Clays,1984. Print. Rollo, May. The Cry For Myth. New York: Delta, 1992. Print. Petrou, David M. The Making of Superman the Movie. New York: Warner Books,1978. Print. 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